Pine Nuts : Species, Products, Markets,

Introduction:

Pine nuts - edible seeds of certain pine species - harvested for food prior to the time of ancient Rome and Greece, have been a staple in the diet of several Native American tribes in North America and indigenous peoples of Siberia and the Russian Far East. Today pine nut continues to be harvested in many regions of the Northern hemisphere and is marketed on domestic and international markets as a gourmet product. In this paper we will look at pine nut producing species worldwide, describe pine nut products and their markets and draw attention to key issues surrounding the potential for pine nut production in the U.S.

Species:

Over 20 pine species in Eurasia and North America produce pine nuts (Table 1). Of those, 5 are commercially important nut producers. A number of nut producing pines are also major timber species. Many more species were historically important nut producers, but lost their importance as emphasis shifted from nut production to managing for timber or charcoal. They continue to be harvested locally. Pinyon pine nuts were extensively harvested by Native Americans and later Europeans and as late as 1920’s were commercially collected and sent to large cities on the East Coast. Today the most important pine nut producers are:

• Siberian pine, Pinus sibirica;

• Korean pine, Pinus koraiensis;

• Italian stone pine, Pinus pinea;

• Chilgoza pine, Pinus gerardiana; and

• pinyon pines, including singleleaf pinyon, Pinus monophylla and Colorado pinyon, Pinus edulis.

Nut producing pine species exhibit a wide variety of life history characteristics (Richardson 1998). They range from low (up to 10 m) trees or even shrubs (Pinus pumila) to trees with a straight bole, over 30 m tall (Pinus sibirica and Pinus koraiensis). They are adapted to a variety of conditions: from the extremely harsh and cold climate of north of East Siberia (Pinus pumila) to the semi-desert mountains (above 1,500 meters) of New Mexico, Nevada and Mexico (pinyon pines) (Burns and Honkala 1990). They also vary greatly in terms of pine nut productivity: from the abundant crops of pinyon pines (up to 335 kg/ha) to Korean pine (up to 100 kg/ha) and Siberian pine (usually about 50-60 kg/ha in natural stands) to other pines that have only marginal importance as pine nut producers (Pinus coulteri). Economic importance of these pines is not limited to pine nut production. A number of species are valuable for timber. This is especially true for Pinus sibirica and Pinus koraiensis, praised for fragrance, durability, dense grain and rot resistance of their wood, widely

used in woodcarving, flooring, and new furniture.

Many nut producing pines make good ornamentals (e.g., Pinus sibirica, Pinus armandii, Pinus parviflora, Pinus bungeana) and are planted both within and outside their natural range. The pines perform important ecological functions: most of them provide valuable food for wildlife; many play an important watershed protection role. A number of species (e.g., P. sibirica) possess ecosystem-wide importance in the stands they dominate and dramatically in?uence composition and properties of the plant community as well as behavior and life cycle of animal species. Beyond that, several pine species are of exceptional cultural, symbolic and spiritual importance.

The image of pinyon pines permeates the lore of several Native American tribes (Lanner 1981). Russian monks planted Pinus sibirica in monasteries as sacred trees and distributed seeds to pilgrims for planting (Drozdov 1998). Lately, the importance of Siberian pine as a cultural and spiritual symbol was popularized by Russian author Vladimir Megre in a series of books The Ringing Cedars (Megre 2005), which became a national bestseller and were translated into 15 languages.

Pine nut products:

The use of pine nuts and pine nut products is summarized in Figure 1.

Pine nuts are known throughout the world as a nutritious healthy snack (raw or roasted) and essential ingredient in multiple oriental and Mediterranean dishes. They are also added to gourmet chocolates. Pine nuts are cholesterol-free, contain from 53 to 68% fat (of which 93% is unsaturated fat), multiple micronutrients and vitamins. Nuts of different pine species differ in size, nutritional / medicinal value * Araucaria angustifolia (Araucariaceae), Parana pine, S.E. Brazil, South America, yields a large edible seed commonly sold in the local marketplace. Historically important to indigenous population. Not a true pine. and taste (International Tree Nut Council). However, consumers are usually not sophisticated enough to distinguish between nuts of different species, therefore the nuts are usually lumped together in the commerce and referred to as “pine nuts”, pinyon nuts, pignolia, etc. They are usually marketed shelled, and sometimes in the shell. The latter is especially true of soft-shelled pine nuts, such as those of pinyon pines. Entire nuts are sometimes used as food for pet birds or wildlife.

Pine nuts contain up to 68% oil. Pine nut oil is obtained by pressing and is available on the market as an expensive gourmet cooking oil or a medicine (in bottles or capsules). Cold pressing in all-wooden presses is preferred to retain the medicinal properties of nuts and derive the oil of highest quality. It is the quest for half-forgotten techniques for pressing Siberian pine nut oil that led Russian entrepreneur Vladimir Megre to the discoveries described in his inspirational books, now international bestsellers, The Ringing Cedars Series.

While little research was made in the medicinal properties of pine nut oils derived from different species (Drozdov, personal communication), a number of sources suggest that Siberian pine nuts yield oil with high medicinal value (Megre 1996), traditionally used to cure a wide array of ailments – ingested (decreasing blood pressure, boosting immune system resistance, etc.) or applied externally (a range of dermatological disorders) (Cedar: a magni?cent healer. 2002). Pine nut oil contains pinolenic, linolenic and linoleic acids, polyunsaturated fatty acids, and is marketed in the U.S. as a means to stimulate cell proliferation, prevent hypertension, decrease blood lipid and blood sugar, and inhibit allergic reactions.

Apart from cooking and medicine, pine nut oil is used in cosmetics, beauty products, and as a highend massage oil. It also has a variety of specialty uses such as a wood varnish, paint base for paintings and treatment of one skins in leather industry. The byproduct of pine nut oil pressing is pine nut flakes used in granolas, chocolates, and crunch bar production. The flakes contain up to 30% oil. When further pressed and crushed to extract oil, they turn into pine nut meal or flour, which has a wide variety of culinary uses. It is a gourmet substitute for wheat or rye flour, used in pastries, pancakes, etc. giving them a rich nutty flavor. Mixed with water, the meal becomes a pine nut milk or pine nut cream – a dairy-free milk-like drink with sweet, rich nutty flavor.

Pine nut markets:

The U.S. market for pine nuts and pine nut products has a number of important and unique characteristics. Market potential. Despite $100 million in annual sales in the U.S., the market for pine nuts and pine nut products is underdeveloped (U.S. Trade Quick-Reference Tables: December 2003). Pine nuts are considered a specialty product and are primarily available through specialized distributors such as health food / ethnic food stores and catalogues, as well as an ingredient in oriental / Mediterranean dishes such as pesto. Pine nut oil has limited availability as a gourmet product or food supplement from a number of on-line stores. Other products, such as pine nut chocolate / crunch bars, pine nut meal, milk and cream are virtually unknown. Market growth and introduction of new products is constrained by the limited supply of pine nuts, consumers’ unfamiliarity with these products, and their high cost.

Supply dependent market. World pine nut production falls far short of demand. Even in a good crop year total world production may only be around 20,000 tons of kernel (www.pinenut.com/value.htm). As both regional and world production ?uctuates widely from year to year (good harvest from natural stands occurring at most every other year), the world market is often completely out of stock for months before the new harvest. This has two major implications: high prices and price inelasticity. Price. Pine nuts are one of the most expensive nuts on the market, with retail prices of shelled nuts ranging from about $20 to $35 per kg and up. Retail prices for pine nut oil range between $70 and $140 per liter, and are substantially higher for pine nut oil marketed in capsules as a medicine / dietary supplement.

Price inelasticity:

A limited supply of pine nuts makes the market very different from markets for most agricultural commodities. As mentioned, at the present time there are no obvious substitutes to ease demand pressure and no alternative production options to increase supply. The market is very elastic in terms of quantity: it can absorb as much nut as is available, expanding after a good crop year and contracting after a mediocre one. For instance, U.S imports increased from 1,909 tons in 2000 (1999 an increase of 88% in two years. At the same time, the market is very price inelastic: even with a large increase in quantity, the price decreased insubstantially. Thus, as U.S. imports increased by 88% from 2000 to 2002, the customs price decreased by only 8% from $8.9 per kg to $8.2 per kg (U.S. Customs Statistics). This price inelasticity also re?ects the fact that there are no obvious substitutes for pine nuts to impact the high market price.

Dependence on imports. Eighty to 90% of pine nuts consumed in the U.S. are currently imported, primarily from China. U.S. domestic production is estimated at only 400 to 500 tons per year (www.pinenut.com).

Market trends:

endangered supplies, Most of the pine nuts imported from China originate in Russia and are brought to China for processing, packaging and shipping overseas. Two important future trends may limit availability of these pine nut imports. First, Russia’s vast Pinus sibirica and Pinus koraiensis forests are under heavy logging pressure and the resource that can provide a variety of long-term benefits, especially nuts, is being rapidly depleted. According to WWF Russia, at least 20 million m3 of Siberian and Korean pine is harvested illegally each year, most of it is being shipped to China and Japan (Kotlobai 2002; WWF Russia 2002a). Second, publication of the Russian bestseller The Ringing Cedars by Vladimir Megre has boosted Russia’s domestic demand for pine nuts and a wide variety of pine nut products, and consumers are willing to pay high prices. The growing Russian processing of pine nut and vertical integration of harvesters - processors - wholesalers makes selling on domestic market more profitable than export (Figure 2). Thus, the dramatic growth of Russia’s internal domestic consumption may further limit availability of nuts for export (through China) to the U.S.

Potential for U.S. production:

The growing U.S. domestic and world demand for pine nuts calls for:

• adjusting management practices of existing pinyon pine woodlands to recognize the economic value of pine nut production;

• exploring the pine nut production potential of other native pine species; and

• considering introduction of pine nut producing species (domestic and exotic) for growing in plantations and/or in agroforestry systems as multipurpose trees.

The nut producing pinyon-juniper woodlands of the Great Basin were extensively logged for charcoal to fuel the growing U.S. economy (especially silver smelters) throughout 19th and first half of 20th centuries. Also, vast areas of pinyon-juniper were cleared and converted to pasture (Lanner 1981). From 1950 to 1973 the U.S. Forest Service and Bureau of Land Management cleared 3.2 million acres (1.3 million ha) of pinyon woodland for grazing, even though the value of nuts produced signifcantly exceeded the value of cattle. Due to destructive past management practices, pinyon pines currently cover only 10% of their original range (www.pinenut.com).

As harvesting pine nuts is a sustainable alternative to using lands for grazing, the value of pine nut production must be given full weight in design and implementation of management plans for pinyon pine woodlands. Historically, thousands of tons of pinyon pine nuts were harvested and made available on the market, and the remarkable pine nut productivity of healthy pinyon pine trees should be encouraged. The highly competitive auction for 2004 pine nuts harvest licenses on Bureau of Land Management lands in Nebraska (resulting in licenses for about 500,000 lb sold - the historic high) may be an important indication of growing value of pinyon pine nuts for the American consumer.

Unlike pinyon pines, which continue to be harvested commercially for pine nuts, many of the nut producing pine species naturally occurring in the U.S. (Table 1) were never commercially used for pine nut production and their potential for such production has not been subject to systematic inquiry. No tree improvement program has been developed to improve current production or test promising species. The growing recognition of importance of non-timber forest products for sustainable management of forest resources calls for assessment of the potential of these species as pine nut producers.

A good understanding of the economics of pine nut production would be crucial before considering any selection / breeding program for the U.S. Noteworthy, most of the pine nut available on the market is coming from natural forests. Pickers have the advantage of being able to harvest the nuts without incurring any costs to create or maintain forest plantations. For this reason nut producing pines are rarely planted in tree plantations for nut production, but where they are, they are usually being planted in their natural range, often in countries with planned economies (North Korea, USSR, China), where market considerations may not play the leading role, or in countries with low level of wages, or both.

Small Pinus pinea orchards in Italy and Southern France being a prominent exception, where the growers capitalize on specialty uses of the pine nut oil as food and in cosmetic industry and on other applications. The labor cost consideration is particularly important given that pine nut collection and processing is, at present, very labor intensive. Pine nut yields of Pinus koraiensis plantations are lower per acre than those of natural stands with higher density of trees per acre (Owston 2000). Additionally, most pine species start bearing crops of nuts at 30 to 40 or more years in natural stands, and rarely at less than 20 years in plantations.

This extended period before production erodes profitability of pine plantations, even though a nut producing pine may produce good crops for hundreds of years in its natural range. Further, these nut bearing pines usually have periodic cone crops (every other year), with good crop years on average every 3 to 5 years, increasing uncertainty and risks. Finally, pine nuts are a preferred wildlife food, so the owner of a pine orchard would have to compete with numerous wildlife species (especially squirrels and birds) for the crop.

For all these reasons pine nut producing pines can become a suitable forestry / agroforestry species

for nut production in the U.S. only if suitable varieties are developed that

• are well adapted to local ecological conditions,

• are fast growing,

• are precocious (i.e., start producing nut crops at an early age),

• reliably produce heavy crops biennially,

• and in some species, serve as multipurpose species that also produce valuable products other than pine nuts (e.g., timber).

This suggests that a tree improvement program would be an essential first step toward the development of domestic and exotic nut pines for their nut production potential. Several issues are relevant here. First, in the short-term, the opportunity exists to maximize nut production in grafted orchards by selecting individuals that are extremely good nut producers and asexually propagating these exceptional individuals. This should be combined with production research to maximize pine nut yield (e.g., determining optimal fertilization regimes, tree spacing and soil management strategies). There are a number of exotic pine species that may be well adapted to North American growing conditions. Some of these species are already known to perform well and are grown as ornamentals (Pinus armandii, Pinus parviflora and Pinus bungeana). However, they were never selected for pine nut production and their nut producing potential in the U.S. remains unknown.

Pinus sibirica and Pinus koraiensis are known to possess very high genetic variability even within a given stand. There are individuals that are prolific seeders and produce heavy crops, sometimes even annually. In a natural setting these individuals tend to loose in competition with other individuals that invest energy and carbon in growth rather than seed production – the good seed producers are usually overtopped, shaded out by surrounding trees and eventually die. These individuals need to be identified and asexually propagated. Breeding programs to develop cultivars of pines (or hybrids) well adapted to climatic conditions both within and outside of their natural range can be undertaken. Previous attempts were generally unsuccessful in Russia. A 40-year long effort to introduce Pinus sibirica into European Russia was only moderately successful, and species’ performance usually decreased in the southern, warmer parts of European Russia (Drozdov, 1998). Considerable efforts to introduce a nut producing pine species to South Africa did not lead to its becoming an important nut producing species (Forestry Compendium 2002).

Finally, Pinus sibirica and Pinus koraiensis, two major nut-producing and timber species of East Siberia and Far East may be well adapted to the northern part of Midwest (Lake States) and northern New England. Introduction of Pinus sibirica to Canada was successful, less so Pinus koraiensis. Also, both Pinus sibirica and Pinus koraiensis are white pines. It was observed that white pines readily hybridize among themselves (Mirov N.T. and Hasbrouck J. 1976). Therefore, Pinus sibirica and Pinus koraiensis could potentially be hybridized with Pinus strobus in an attempt to produce a nut producing hybrid adapted to the natural range of Pinus strobus.

Conclusions:

Nut producing pines are unique species of high economic, ecological, cultural and spiritual significance. They provide a multitude of benefits to humans, including highly nutritious healthy nuts and durable fragrant wood, as well as other products. At the same time pine forests often have been and continue to be abused and harvested for timber production, which destroys the basis for sustained pine nut production. The growing world demand for pine nuts and stable high prices call for better management of existing pine nut resources and for investing in pine nut cultivation within and outside their native range.

Authors:

Leonid Sharashkin and Michael Gold